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This is Info file ld.info, produced by Makeinfo-1.52 from the input
file ./ld.texinfo.
START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
* Ld: (ld). The GNU linker.
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
This file documents the GNU linker LD.
Copyright (C) 1991, 1992, 1993 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
preserved on all copies.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms
of a permission notice identical to this one.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
versions.
Indirect:
ld.info-1: 839
ld.info-2: 49050
Tag Table:
(Indirect)
Node: Top
Node: Overview
Node: Invocation
Node: Commands
13937
Node: Scripts
15055
Node: Expressions
16153
Node: Integers
17080
Node: Symbols
17919
Node: Location Counter
18479
Node: Operators
19675
Node: Evaluation
20585
Node: Assignment
21280
Node: Built-ins
24350
Node: MEMORY
28115
Node: SECTIONS
30678
Node: Section Definition
32208
Node: Section Contents
33635
Node: Section Options
42088
Node: Entry Point
44260
Node: Other Commands
45852
Node: BFD
49050
Node: BFD outline
52495
Node: BFD information loss
53682
Node: Mechanism
56180
Node: MRI
60555
Node: Index
64856
End Tag Table
This is Info file ld.info, produced by Makeinfo-1.52 from the input
file ./ld.texinfo.
START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
* Ld: (ld). The GNU linker.
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
This file documents the GNU linker LD.
Copyright (C) 1991, 1992, 1993 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
preserved on all copies.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms
of a permission notice identical to this one.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
versions.
File: ld.info, Node: Top, Next: Overview, Prev: (DIR), Up: (DIR)
Using ld
********
This file documents the GNU linker ld.
* Menu:
* Overview:: Overview
* Invocation:: Invocation
* Commands:: Command Language
* BFD:: BFD
* MRI:: MRI Compatible Script Files
* Index:: Index
File: ld.info, Node: Overview, Next: Invocation, Prev: Top, Up: Top
Overview
********
`ld' combines a number of object and archive files, relocates their
data and ties up symbol references. Usually the last step in compiling
a program is to run `ld'.
`ld' accepts Linker Command Language files written in a superset of
AT&T's Link Editor Command Language syntax, to provide explicit and
total control over the linking process.
This version of `ld' uses the general purpose BFD libraries to
operate on object files. This allows `ld' to read, combine, and write
object files in many different formats--for example, COFF or `a.out'.
Different formats may be linked together to produce any available kind
of object file. *Note BFD:: for a list of formats supported on various
architectures.
Aside from its flexibility, the GNU linker is more helpful than other
linkers in providing diagnostic information. Many linkers abandon
execution immediately upon encountering an error; whenever possible,
`ld' continues executing, allowing you to identify other errors (or, in
some cases, to get an output file in spite of the error).
File: ld.info, Node: Invocation, Next: Commands, Prev: Overview, Up: Top
Invocation
**********
The GNU linker `ld' is meant to cover a broad range of situations,
and to be as compatible as possible with other linkers. As a result,
you have many choices to control its behavior.
Here is a summary of the options you can use on the `ld' command
line:
ld [-o OUTPUT ] OBJFILE...
[ -AARCHITECTURE ] [ -b INPUT-FORMAT ] [ -Bstatic ]
[ -c MRI-COMMANDFILE ] [ -d | -dc | -dp ]
[ -defsym SYMBOL=EXPRESSION ]
[ -e ENTRY ] [ -F ] [ -F FORMAT ]
[ -format INPUT-FORMAT ] [ -g ] [ -i ]
[ -lAR ] [ -LSEARCHDIR ] [ -M | -m ]
[ -n | -N ] [ -noinhibit-exec ] [ -R FILENAME ]
[ -relax ] [ -r | -Ur ] [ -S ] [ -s ] [ -T COMMANDFILE ]
[ -Ttext TEXTORG ] [ -Tdata DATAORG ] [ -Tbss BSSORG ]
[ -t ] [ -u SYM] [-v] [ -X ] [ -x ] [ -ySYMBOL ]
[ { SCRIPT } ]
This plethora of command-line options may seem intimidating, but in
actual practice few of them are used in any particular context. For
instance, a frequent use of `ld' is to link standard Unix object files
on a standard, supported Unix system. On such a system, to link a file
`hello.o':
ld -o OUTPUT /lib/crt0.o hello.o -lc
This tells `ld' to produce a file called OUTPUT as the result of
linking the file `/lib/crt0.o' with `hello.o' and the library `libc.a',
which will come from the standard search directories. (See the
discussion of the `-l' option below.)
The command-line options to `ld' may be specified in any order, and
may be repeated at will. Repeating most options with a different
argument will either have no further effect, or override prior
occurrences (those further to the left on the command line) of that
option.
The exceptions--which may meaningfully be used more than once--are
`-A', `-b' (or its synonym `-format'), `-defsym', `-L', `-l', `-R', and
`-u'.
The list of object files to be linked together, shown as OBJFILE...,
may follow, precede, or be mixed in with command-line options, except
that an OBJFILE argument may not be placed between an option and its
argument.
Usually the linker is invoked with at least one object file, but
other forms of binary input files can also be specified with `-l',
`-R', and the script command language. If *no* binary input files at
all are specified, the linker does not produce any output, and issues
the message `No input files'.
Option arguments must either follow the option letter without
intervening whitespace, or be given as separate arguments immediately
following the option that requires them.
`OBJFILE...'
The object files to be linked.
`-b INPUT-FORMAT'
Specify the binary format for input object files that follow this
option on the command line. You don't usually need to specify
this, as `ld' is configured to expect as a default input format
the most usual format on each machine. INPUT-FORMAT is a text
string, the name of a particular format supported by the BFD
libraries. `-format INPUT-FORMAT' has the same effect. *Note
BFD::.
You may want to use this option if you are linking files with an
unusual binary format. You can also use `-b' to switch formats
explicitly (when linking object files of different formats), by
including `-b INPUT-FORMAT' before each group of object files in a
particular format.
The default format is taken from the environment variable
`GNUTARGET'. You can also define the input format from a script,
using the command `TARGET'; see *Note Other Commands::.
`-Bstatic'
Ignored. This option is accepted for command-line compatibility
with the SunOS linker.
`-c MRI-COMMANDFILE'
For compatibility with linkers produced by MRI, `ld' accepts script
files written in an alternate, restricted command language,
described in *Note MRI Compatible Script Files: MRI. Introduce
MRI script files with the option `-c'; use the `-T' option to run
linker scripts written in the general-purpose `ld' scripting
language.
`-dc'
`-dp'
These three options are equivalent; multiple forms are supported
for compatibility with other linkers. They assign space to common
symbols even if a relocatable output file is specified (with
`-r'). The script command `FORCE_COMMON_ALLOCATION' has the same
effect. *Note Other Commands::.
`-defsym SYMBOL=EXPRESSION'
Create a global symbol in the output file, containing the absolute
address given by EXPRESSION. You may use this option as many
times as necessary to define multiple symbols in the command line.
A limited form of arithmetic is supported for the EXPRESSION in
this context: you may give a hexadecimal constant or the name of
an existing symbol, or use `+' and `-' to add or subtract
hexadecimal constants or symbols. If you need more elaborate
expressions, consider using the linker command language from a
script (*note Assignment: Symbol Definitions: Assignment.).
*Note:* there should be no white space between SYMBOL, the equals
sign ("="), and EXPRESSION.
`-e ENTRY'
Use ENTRY as the explicit symbol for beginning execution of your
program, rather than the default entry point. *Note Entry Point::,
for a discussion of defaults and other ways of specifying the
entry point.
`-FFORMAT'
Ignored. Some older linkers used this option throughout a
compilation toolchain for specifying object-file format for both
input and output object files. The mechanisms `ld' uses for this
purpose (the `-b' or `-format' options for input files, the
`TARGET' command in linker scripts for output files, the
`GNUTARGET' environment variable) are more flexible, but `ld'
accepts the `-F' option for compatibility with scripts written to
call the old linker.
`-format INPUT-FORMAT'
Synonym for `-b INPUT-FORMAT'.
Ignored. Provided for compatibility with other tools.
Perform an incremental link (same as option `-r').
`-lAR'
Add archive file AR to the list of files to link. This option may
be used any number of times. `ld' will search its path-list for
occurrences of `libAR.a' for every AR specified.
`-LSEARCHDIR'
Add path SEARCHDIR to the list of paths that `ld' will search for
archive libraries. You may use this option any number of times.
The paths can also be specified in a link script with the
`SEARCH_DIR' command.
Print (to the standard output) a link map--diagnostic information
about where symbols are mapped by `ld', and information on global
common storage allocation.
Set the text and data sections to be readable and writable. Also,
do not page-align the data segment. If the output format supports
Unix style magic numbers, mark the output as `OMAGIC'.
Set the text segment to be read only, and mark the output as
`NMAGIC' if possible.
`-noinhibit-exec'
Retain the executable output file whenever it is still usable.
Normally, the linker will not produce an output file if it
encounters errors during the link process; it exits without
writing an output file when it issues any error whatsoever.
`-o OUTPUT'
Use OUTPUT as the name for the program produced by `ld'; if this
option is not specified, the name `a.out' is used by default. The
script command `OUTPUT' can also specify the output file name.
`-R FILENAME'
On some platforms, this option performs global optimizations that
become possible when the linker resolves addressing in the
program, such as relaxing address modes and synthesizing new
instructions in the output object file.
`-relax'
An option with machine dependent effects. Currently this option
is only supported on the H8/300.
On some platforms, use option performs global optimizations that
become possible when the linker resolves addressing in the
program, such as relaxing address modes and synthesizing new
instructions in the output object file.
On platforms where this is not supported, `-relax' is accepted, but
ignored.
Generate relocatable output--i.e., generate an output file that
can in turn serve as input to `ld'. This is often called "partial
linking". As a side effect, in environments that support standard
Unix magic numbers, this option also sets the output file's magic
number to `OMAGIC'. If this option is not specified, an absolute
file is produced. When linking C++ programs, this option *will
not* resolve references to constructors; to do that, use `-Ur'.
This option does the same as `-i'.
Omit debugger symbol information (but not all symbols) from the
output file.
Omit all symbol information from the output file.
`{ SCRIPT }'
You can, if you wish, include a script of linker commands directly
in the command line instead of referring to it via an input file.
When the character `{' occurs on the command line, the linker
switches to interpreting the command language until the end of the
list of commands is reached; the end is indicated with a closing
brace `}'. `ld' does not recognize other command-line options
while parsing the script. *Note Commands::, for a description of
the command language.
`-Tbss BSSORG'
`-Tdata DATAORG'
`-Ttext TEXTORG'
Use ORG as the starting address for--respectively--the `bss',
`data', or the `text' segment of the output file. ORG must be a
single hexadecimal integer; for compatibility with other linkers,
you may omit the leading `0x' usually associated with hexadecimal
values.
`-T COMMANDFILE'
`-TCOMMANDFILE'
Read link commands from the file COMMANDFILE. These commands
completely override `ld''s default link format (rather than adding
to it); COMMANDFILE must specify everything necessary to describe
the target format. *Note Commands::.
You may also include a script of link commands directly in the
command line by bracketing it between `{' and `}'.
Print the names of the input files as `ld' processes them.
`-u SYM'
Force SYM to be entered in the output file as an undefined symbol.
Doing this may, for example, trigger linking of additional modules
from standard libraries. `-u' may be repeated with different
option arguments to enter additional undefined symbols.
`-Ur'
For anything other than C++ programs, this option is equivalent to
`-r': it generates relocatable output--i.e., an output file that
can in turn serve as input to `ld'. When linking C++ programs,
`-Ur' *will* resolve references to constructors, unlike `-r'.
Display the version number for `ld'.
If `-s' or `-S' is also specified, delete only local symbols
beginning with `L'.
If `-s' or `-S' is also specified, delete all local symbols, not
just those beginning with `L'.
`-ySYMBOL'
Print the name of each linked file in which SYMBOL appears. This
option may be given any number of times. On many systems it is
necessary to prepend an underscore.
This option is useful when you have an undefined symbol in your
link but don't know where the reference is coming from.
File: ld.info, Node: Commands, Next: BFD, Prev: Invocation, Up: Top
Command Language
****************
The command language provides explicit control over the link process,
allowing complete specification of the mapping between the linker's
input files and its output. It controls:
* input files
* file formats
* output file format
* addresses of sections
* placement of common blocks
You may supply a command file (also known as a link script) to the
linker either explicitly through the `-T' option, or implicitly as an
ordinary file. If the linker opens a file which it cannot recognize as
a supported object or archive format, it tries to interpret the file as
a command file.
You can also include a script directly on the `ld' command line,
delimited by the characters `{' and `}'.
* Menu:
* Scripts:: Linker Scripts
* Expressions:: Expressions
* MEMORY:: MEMORY Command
* SECTIONS:: SECTIONS Command
* Entry Point:: The Entry Point
* Other Commands:: Other Commands
File: ld.info, Node: Scripts, Next: Expressions, Up: Commands
Linker Scripts
==============
The `ld' command language is a collection of statements; some are
simple keywords setting a particular option, some are used to select and
group input files or name output files; and two statement types have a
fundamental and pervasive impact on the linking process.
The most fundamental command of the `ld' command language is the
`SECTIONS' command (*note SECTIONS::.). Every meaningful command
script must have a `SECTIONS' command: it specifies a "picture" of the
output file's layout, in varying degrees of detail. No other command
is required in all cases.
The `MEMORY' command complements `SECTIONS' by describing the
available memory in the target architecture. This command is optional;
if you don't use a `MEMORY' command, `ld' assumes sufficient memory is
available in a contiguous block for all output. *Note MEMORY::.
You may include comments in linker scripts just as in C: delimited
by `/*' and `*/'. As in C, comments are syntactically equivalent to
whitespace.
File: ld.info, Node: Expressions, Next: MEMORY, Prev: Scripts, Up: Commands
Expressions
===========
Many useful commands involve arithmetic expressions. The syntax for
expressions in the command language is identical to that of C
expressions, with the following features:
* All expressions evaluated as integers and are of "long" or
"unsigned long" type.
* All constants are integers.
* All of the C arithmetic operators are provided.
* You may reference, define, and create global variables.
* You may call special purpose built-in functions.
* Menu:
* Integers:: Integers
* Symbols:: Symbol Names
* Location Counter:: The Location Counter
* Operators:: Operators
* Evaluation:: Evaluation
* Assignment:: Assignment: Defining Symbols
* Built-ins:: Built-In Functions
File: ld.info, Node: Integers, Next: Symbols, Up: Expressions
Integers
--------
An octal integer is `0' followed by zero or more of the octal digits
(`01234567').
_as_octal = 0157255;
A decimal integer starts with a non-zero digit followed by zero or
more digits (`0123456789').
_as_decimal = 57005;
A hexadecimal integer is `0x' or `0X' followed by one or more
hexadecimal digits chosen from `0123456789abcdefABCDEF'.
_as_hex = 0xdead;
To write a negative integer, use the prefix operator `-'; *note
Operators::..
_as_neg = -57005;
Additionally the suffixes `K' and `M' may be used to scale a
constant by `1024' or `1024*1024' respectively. For example, the
following all refer to the same quantity:
_fourk_1 = 4K;
_fourk_2 = 4096;
_fourk_3 = 0x1000;
File: ld.info, Node: Symbols, Next: Location Counter, Prev: Integers, Up: Expressions
Symbol Names
------------
Unless quoted, symbol names start with a letter, underscore, point or
hyphen and may include any letters, underscores, digits, points, and
minus signs. Unquoted symbol names must not conflict with any
keywords. You can specify a symbol which contains odd characters or has
the same name as a keyword, by surrounding the symbol name in double
quotes:
"SECTION" = 9;
"with a space" = "also with a space" + 10;
File: ld.info, Node: Location Counter, Next: Operators, Prev: Symbols, Up: Expressions
The Location Counter
--------------------
The special linker variable "dot" `.' always contains the current
output location counter. Since the `.' always refers to a location in
an output section, it must always appear in an expression within a
`SECTIONS' command. The `.' symbol may appear anywhere that an ordinary
symbol is allowed in an expression, but its assignments have a side
effect. Assigning a value to the `.' symbol will cause the location
counter to be moved. This may be used to create holes in the output
section. The location counter may never be moved backwards.
SECTIONS
{
output :
{
file1(.text)
. = . + 1000;
file2(.text)
. += 1000;
file3(.text)
} = 0x1234;
}
In the previous example, `file1' is located at the beginning of the
output section, then there is a 1000 byte gap. Then `file2' appears,
also with a 1000 byte gap following before `file3' is loaded. The
notation `= 0x1234' specifies what data to write in the gaps (*note
Section Options::.).
File: ld.info, Node: Operators, Next: Evaluation, Prev: Location Counter, Up: Expressions
Operators
---------
The linker recognizes the standard C set of arithmetic operators,
with the standard bindings and precedence levels:
precedence associativity Operators Notes
(highest)
1 left ! - ~ (1)
2 left * / %
3 left + -
4 left >> <<
5 left == != > < <= >=
6 left &
7 left |
8 left &&
9 left ||
10 right ? :
11 right &= += -= *= /= (2)
(lowest)
Notes: (1) Prefix operators (2) *Note Assignment::
File: ld.info, Node: Evaluation, Next: Assignment, Prev: Operators, Up: Expressions
Evaluation
----------
The linker uses "lazy evaluation" for expressions; it only calculates
an expression when absolutely necessary. The linker needs the value of
the start address, and the lengths of memory regions, in order to do any
linking at all; these values are computed as soon as possible when the
linker reads in the command file. However, other values (such as symbol
values) are not known or needed until after storage allocation. Such
values are evaluated later, when other information (such as the sizes of
output sections) is available for use in the symbol assignment
expression.
File: ld.info, Node: Assignment, Next: Built-ins, Prev: Evaluation, Up: Expressions
Assignment: Defining Symbols
----------------------------
You may create global symbols, and assign values (addresses) to
global symbols, using any of the C assignment operators:
`SYMBOL = EXPRESSION ;'
`SYMBOL &= EXPRESSION ;'
`SYMBOL += EXPRESSION ;'
`SYMBOL -= EXPRESSION ;'
`SYMBOL *= EXPRESSION ;'
`SYMBOL /= EXPRESSION ;'
Two things distinguish assignment from other operators in `ld'
expressions.
* Assignment may only be used at the root of an expression; `a=b+3;'
is allowed, but `a+b=3;' is an error.
* You must place a trailing semicolon (";") at the end of an
assignment statement.
Assignment statements may appear:
* as commands in their own right in an `ld' script; or
* as independent statements within a `SECTIONS' command; or
* as part of the contents of a section definition in a `SECTIONS'
command.
The first two cases are equivalent in effect--both define a symbol
with an absolute address. The last case defines a symbol whose address
is relative to a particular section (*note SECTIONS::.).
When a linker expression is evaluated and assigned to a variable, it
is given either an absolute or a relocatable type. An absolute
expression type is one in which the symbol contains the value that it
will have in the output file, a relocatable expression type is one in
which the value is expressed as a fixed offset from the base of a
section.
The type of the expression is controlled by its position in the
script file. A symbol assigned within a section definition is created
relative to the base of the section; a symbol assigned in any other
place is created as an absolute symbol. Since a symbol created within a
section definition is relative to the base of the section, it will
remain relocatable if relocatable output is requested. A symbol may be
created with an absolute value even when assigned to within a section
definition by using the absolute assignment function `ABSOLUTE'. For
example, to create an absolute symbol whose address is the last byte of
an output section named `.data':
SECTIONS{ ...
.data :
{
*(.data)
_edata = ABSOLUTE(.) ;
}
... }
The linker tries to put off the evaluation of an assignment until all
the terms in the source expression are known (*note Evaluation::.). For
instance, the sizes of sections cannot be known until after allocation,
so assignments dependent upon these are not performed until after
allocation. Some expressions, such as those depending upon the location
counter "dot", `.' must be evaluated during allocation. If the result
of an expression is required, but the value is not available, then an
error results. For example, a script like the following
SECTIONS { ...
text 9+this_isnt_constant :
{ ...
}
... }
will cause the error message "`Non constant expression for initial
address'".
File: ld.info, Node: Built-ins, Prev: Assignment, Up: Expressions
Built-In Functions
------------------
The command language includes a number of built-in functions for use
in link script expressions.
`ABSOLUTE(EXP)'
Return the absolute (non-relocatable, as opposed to non-negative)
value of the expression EXP. Primarily useful to assign an
absolute value to a symbol within a section definition, where
symbol values are normally section-relative.
`ADDR(SECTION)'
Return the absolute address of the named SECTION. Your script must
previously have defined the location of that section. In the
following example, `symbol_1' and `symbol_2' are assigned identical
values:
SECTIONS{ ...
.output1 :
{
start_of_output_1 = ABSOLUTE(.);
...
}
.output :
{
symbol_1 = ADDR(.output1);
symbol_2 = start_of_output_1;
}
... }
`ALIGN(EXP)'
Return the result of the current location counter (`.') aligned to
the next EXP boundary. EXP must be an expression whose value is a
power of two. This is equivalent to
(. + EXP - 1) & ~(EXP - 1)
`ALIGN' doesn't change the value of the location counter--it just
does arithmetic on it. As an example, to align the output `.data'
section to the next `0x2000' byte boundary after the preceding
section and to set a variable within the section to the next
`0x8000' boundary after the input sections:
SECTIONS{ ...
.data ALIGN(0x2000): {
*(.data)
variable = ALIGN(0x8000);
}
... }
The first use of `ALIGN' in this example specifies the location of
a section because it is used as the optional START attribute of a
section definition (*note Section Options::.). The second use
simply defines the value of a variable.
The built-in `NEXT' is closely related to `ALIGN'.
`DEFINED(SYMBOL)'
Return 1 if SYMBOL is in the linker global symbol table and is
defined, otherwise return 0. You can use this function to provide
default values for symbols. For example, the following
command-file fragment shows how to set a global symbol `begin' to
the first location in the `.text' section--but if a symbol called
`begin' already existed, its value is preserved:
SECTIONS{ ...
.text : {
begin = DEFINED(begin) ? begin : . ;
...
}
... }
`NEXT(EXP)'
Return the next unallocated address that is a multiple of EXP.
This function is closely related to `ALIGN(EXP)'; unless you use
the `MEMORY' command to define discontinuous memory for the output
file, the two functions are equivalent.
`SIZEOF(SECTION)'
Return the size in bytes of the named SECTION, if that section has
been allocated. In the following example, `symbol_1' and
`symbol_2' are assigned identical values:
SECTIONS{ ...
.output {
.start = . ;
...
.end = . ;
}
symbol_1 = .end - .start ;
symbol_2 = SIZEOF(.output);
... }
`SIZEOF_HEADERS'
`sizeof_headers'
Return the size in bytes of the output file's headers. You can
use this number as the start address of the first section, if you
choose, to facilitate paging.
File: ld.info, Node: MEMORY, Next: SECTIONS, Prev: Expressions, Up: Commands
MEMORY Command
==============
The linker's default configuration permits allocation of all
available memory. You can override this configuration by using the
`MEMORY' command. The `MEMORY' command describes the location and size
of blocks of memory in the target. By using it carefully, you can
describe which memory regions may be used by the linker, and which
memory regions it must avoid. The linker does not shuffle sections to
fit into the available regions, but does move the requested sections
into the correct regions and issue errors when the regions become too
full.
The command files may contain at most one use of the `MEMORY'
command; however, you can define as many blocks of memory within it as
you wish. The syntax is:
MEMORY
{
NAME (ATTR) : ORIGIN = ORIGIN, LENGTH = LEN
...
}
`NAME'
is a name used internally by the linker to refer to the region. Any
symbol name may be used. The region names are stored in a separate
name space, and will not conflict with symbols, file names or
section names. Use distinct names to specify multiple regions.
`(ATTR)'
is an optional list of attributes, permitted for compatibility
with the AT&T linker but not used by `ld' beyond checking that the
attribute list is valid. Valid attribute lists must be made up of
the characters "`LIRWX'". If you omit the attribute list, you may
omit the parentheses around it as well.
`ORIGIN'
is the start address of the region in physical memory. It is an
expression that must evaluate to a constant before memory
allocation is performed. The keyword `ORIGIN' may be abbreviated
to `org' or `o'.
`LEN'
is the size in bytes of the region (an expression). The keyword
`LENGTH' may be abbreviated to `len' or `l'.
For example, to specify that memory has two regions available for
allocation--one starting at 0 for 256 kilobytes, and the other starting
at `0x40000000' for four megabytes:
MEMORY
{
rom : ORIGIN = 0, LENGTH = 256K
ram : org = 0x40000000, l = 4M
}
Once you have defined a region of memory named MEM, you can direct
specific output sections there by using a command ending in `>MEM'
within the `SECTIONS' command (*note Section Options::.). If the
combined output sections directed to a region are too big for the
region, the linker will issue an error message.
File: ld.info, Node: SECTIONS, Next: Entry Point, Prev: MEMORY, Up: Commands
SECTIONS Command
================
The `SECTIONS' command controls exactly where input sections are
placed into output sections, their order and to which output sections
they are allocated.
You may use at most one `SECTIONS' command in a commands file, but
you can have as many statements within it as you wish. Statements
within the `SECTIONS' command can do one of three things:
* define the entry point;
* assign a value to a symbol;
* describe the placement of a named output section, and what input
sections make it up.
The first two possibilities--defining the entry point, and defining
symbols--can also be done outside the `SECTIONS' command: *note Entry
Point::., *note Assignment::.. They are permitted here as well for
your convenience in reading the script, so that symbols or the entry
point can be defined at meaningful points in your output-file layout.
When no `SECTIONS' command is specified, the default action of the
linker is to place each input section into an identically named output
section in the order that the sections are first encountered in the
input files; if all input sections are present in the first file, for
example, the order of sections in the output file will match the order
in the first input file.
* Menu:
* Section Definition:: Section Definitions
* Section Contents:: Section Contents
* Section Options:: Optional Section Attributes
File: ld.info, Node: Section Definition, Next: Section Contents, Up: SECTIONS
Section Definitions
-------------------
The most frequently used statement in the `SECTIONS' command is the
"section definition", which you can use to specify the properties of an
output section: its location, alignment, contents, fill pattern, and
target memory region. Most of these specifications are optional; the
simplest form of a section definition is
SECTIONS { ...
SECNAME : {
CONTENTS
}
... }
SECNAME is the name of the output section, and CONTENTS a specification
of what goes there--for example, a list of input files or sections of
input files. As you might assume, the whitespace shown is optional.
You do need the colon `:' and the braces `{}', however.
SECNAME must meet the constraints of your output format. In formats
which only support a limited number of sections, such as `a.out', the
name must be one of the names supported by the format (`a.out', for
example, allows only `.text', `.data' or `.bss'). If the output format
supports any number of sections, but with numbers and not names (as is
the case for Oasys), the name should be supplied as a quoted numeric
string. A section name may consist of any sequence characters, but any
name which does not conform to the standard `ld' symbol name syntax
must be quoted. *Note Symbol Names: Symbols.
File: ld.info, Node: Section Contents, Next: Section Options, Prev: Section Definition, Up: SECTIONS
Section Contents
----------------
In a section definition, you can specify the contents of an output
section by listing particular object files, by listing particular
input-file sections, or by a combination of the two. You can also
place arbitrary data in the section, and define symbols relative to the
beginning of the section.
The CONTENTS of a section definition may include any of the
following kinds of statement. You can include as many of these as you
like in a single section definition, separated from one another by
whitespace.
`FILENAME'
You may simply name a particular input file to be placed in the
current output section; *all* sections from that file are placed
in the current section definition. To specify a list of particular
files by name:
.data : { afile.o bfile.o cfile.o }
The example also illustrates that multiple statements can be
included in the contents of a section definition, since each file
name is a separate statement.
If the file name has already been mentioned in another section
definition, with an explicit section name list, then only those
sections which have not yet been allocated are used.
`FILENAME( SECTION )'
`FILENAME( SECTION, SECTION, ... )'
`FILENAME( SECTION SECTION ... )'
You can name one or more sections from your input files, for
insertion in the current output section. If you wish to specify a
list of input-file sections inside the parentheses, you may
separate the section names by either commas or whitespace.
`* (SECTION)'
`* (SECTION, SECTION, ...)'
`* (SECTION SECTION ...'
Instead of explicitly naming particular input files in a link
control script, you can refer to *all* files from the `ld' command
line: use `*' instead of a particular file name before the
parenthesized input-file section list.
For example, to copy sections `1' through `4' from an Oasys file
into the `.text' section of an `a.out' file, and sections `13' and
`14' into the `.data' section:
SECTIONS {
.text :{
*("1" "2" "3" "4")
}
.data :{
*("13" "14")
}
}
If you have already explicitly included some files by name, `*'
refers to all *remaining* files--those whose places in the output
file have not yet been defined.
`[ SECTION ]'
`[ SECTION, SECTION, ... ]'
`[ SECTION SECTION ... ]'
This is an alternate notation to specify named sections from all
unallocated input files; its effect is exactly the same as that of
`* (SECTION...)'
`FILENAME`( COMMON )''
`( COMMON )'
Specify where in your output file to place uninitialized data with
this notation. `*(COMMON)' by itself refers to all uninitialized
data from all input files (so far as it is not yet allocated);
FILENAME`(COMMON)' refers to uninitialized data from a particular
file. Both are special cases of the general mechanisms for
specifying where to place input-file sections: `ld' permits you to
refer to uninitialized data as if it were in an input-file section
named `COMMON', regardless of the input file's format.
For example, the following command script arranges the output file
into three consecutive sections, named `.text', `.data', and `.bss',
taking the input for each from the correspondingly named sections of
all the input files:
SECTIONS {
.text : { *(.text) }
.data : { *(.data) }
.bss : { *(.bss) *(COMMON) }
}
The following example reads all of the sections from file `all.o'
and places them at the start of output section `outputa' which starts
at location `0x10000'. All of section `.input1' from file `foo.o'
follows immediately, in the same output section. All of section
`.input2' from `foo.o' goes into output section `outputb', followed by
section `.input1' from `foo1.o'. All of the remaining `.input1' and
`.input2' sections from any files are written to output section
`outputc'.
SECTIONS {
outputa 0x10000 :
{
all.o
foo.o (.input1)
}
outputb :
{
foo.o (.input2)
foo1.o (.input1)
}
outputc :
{
*(.input1)
*(.input2)
}
}
There are still more kinds of statements permitted in the contents of
output section definitions. The foregoing statements permitted you to
arrange, in your output file, data originating from your input files.
You can also place data directly in an output section from the link
command script. Most of these additional statements involve
expressions; *note Expressions::.. Although these statements are shown
separately here for ease of presentation, no such segregation is needed
within a section definition in the `SECTIONS' command; you can intermix
them freely with any of the statements we've just described.
`CREATE_OBJECT_SYMBOLS'
Create a symbol for each input file in the current section, set to
the address of the first byte of data written from the input file.
For instance, with `a.out' files it is conventional to have a
symbol for each input file. You can accomplish this by defining
the output `.text' section as follows:
SECTIONS {
.text 0x2020 :
{
CREATE_OBJECT_SYMBOLS
*(.text)
_etext = ALIGN(0x2000);
}
...
}
If `objsym' is a file containing this script, and `a.o', `b.o',
`c.o', and `d.o' are four input files with contents like the
following--
/* a.c */
afunction() { }
int adata=1;
int abss;
`ld -M sample a.o b.o c.o d.o' would create a map like this,
containing symbols matching the object file names:
00000000 A __DYNAMIC
00004020 B _abss
00004000 D _adata
00002020 T _afunction
00004024 B _bbss
00004008 D _bdata
00002038 T _bfunction
00004028 B _cbss
00004010 D _cdata
00002050 T _cfunction
0000402c B _dbss
00004018 D _ddata
00002068 T _dfunction
00004020 D _edata
00004030 B _end
00004000 T _etext
00002020 t a.o
00002038 t b.o
00002050 t c.o
00002068 t d.o
`SYMBOL = EXPRESSION ;'
`SYMBOL F= EXPRESSION ;'
SYMBOL is any symbol name (*note Symbols::.). "F=" refers to any
of the operators `&= += -= *= /=' which combine arithmetic and
assignment.
When you assign a value to a symbol within a particular section
definition, the value is relative to the beginning of the section
(*note Assignment::.). If you write
SECTIONS {
abs = 14 ;
...
.data : { ... rel = 14 ; ... }
abs2 = 14 + ADDR(.data);
...
}
`abs' and `rel' do not have the same value; `rel' has the same
value as `abs2'.
`BYTE(EXPRESSION)'
`SHORT(EXPRESSION)'
`LONG(EXPRESSION)'
By including one of these three statements in a section
definition, you can explicitly place one, two, or four bytes
(respectively) at the current address of that section.
Multiple-byte quantities are represented in whatever byte order is
appropriate for the output file format (*note BFD::.).
`FILL(EXPRESSION)'
Specifies the "fill pattern" for the current section. Any
otherwise unspecified regions of memory within the section (for
example, regions you skip over by assigning a new value to the
location counter `.') are filled with the two least significant
bytes from the EXPRESSION argument. A `FILL' statement covers
memory locations *after* the point it occurs in the section
definition; by including more than one `FILL' statement, you can
have different fill patterns in different parts of an output
section.
File: ld.info, Node: Section Options, Prev: Section Contents, Up: SECTIONS
Optional Section Attributes
---------------------------
Here is the full syntax of a section definition, including all the
optional portions:
SECTIONS {
...
SECNAME START BLOCK(ALIGN) (NOLOAD) : { CONTENTS } =FILL >REGION
...
}
SECNAME and CONTENTS are required. *Note Section Definition::, and
*note Section Contents::. for details on CONTENTS. The remaining
elements--START, `BLOCK(ALIGN)', `(NOLOAD)' `=FILL', and `>REGION'--are
all optional.
`START'
You can force the output section to be loaded at a specified
address by specifying START immediately following the section name.
sTART can be represented as any expression. The following example
generates section OUTPUT at location `0x40000000':
SECTIONS {
...
output 0x40000000: {
...
}
...
}
`BLOCK(ALIGN)'
You can include `BLOCK()' specification to advance the location
counter `.' prior to the beginning of the section, so that the
section will begin at the specified alignment. ALIGN is an
expression.
`(NOLOAD)'
Use `(NOLOAD)' to prevent a section from being loaded into memory
each time it is accessed. For example, in the script sample
below, the `ROM' segment is addressed at memory location `0' and
does not need to be loaded into each object file:
SECTIONS {
ROM 0 (NOLOAD) : { ... }
...
}
`=FILL'
Including `=FILL' in a section definition specifies the initial
fill value for that section. You may use any expression to
specify FILL. Any unallocated holes in the current output section
when written to the output file will be filled with the two least
significant bytes of the value, repeated as necessary. You can
also change the fill value with a `FILL' statement in the CONTENTS
of a section definition.
`>REGION'
Assign this section to a previously defined region of memory.
*Note MEMORY::.
File: ld.info, Node: Entry Point, Next: Other Commands, Prev: SECTIONS, Up: Commands
The Entry Point
===============
The linker command language includes a command specifically for
defining the first executable instruction in an output file (its "entry
point"). Its argument is a symbol name:
ENTRY(SYMBOL)
Like symbol assignments, the `ENTRY' command may be placed either as
an independent command in the command file, or among the section
definitions within the `SECTIONS' command--whatever makes the most
sense for your layout.
`ENTRY' is only one of several ways of choosing the entry point.
You may indicate it in any of the following ways (shown in descending
order of priority: methods higher in the list override methods lower
down).
* the `-e' ENTRY command-line option;
* the `ENTRY(SYMBOL' command in a linker control script;
* the value of the symbol `start', if present;
* the value of the symbol `_main', if present;
* the address of the first byte of the `.text' section, if present;
* The address `0'.
For example, you can use these rules to generate an entry point with
an assignment statement: if no symbol `start' is defined within your
input files, you can simply define it, assigning it an appropriate
value--
start = 0x2020;
The example shows an absolute address, but you can use any expression.
For example, if your input object files use some other symbol-name
convention for the entry point, you can just assign the value of
whatever symbol contains the start address to `start':
start = other_symbol ;
File: ld.info, Node: Other Commands, Prev: Entry Point, Up: Commands
Other Commands
==============
The command language includes a number of other commands that you can
use for specialized purposes. They are similar in purpose to
command-line options.
`FLOAT'
`NOFLOAT'
These keywords were used in some older linkers to request a
particular math subroutine library. `ld' doesn't use the
keywords, assuming instead that any necessary subroutines are in
libraries specified using the general mechanisms for linking to
archives; but to permit the use of scripts that were written for
the older linkers, the keywords `FLOAT' and `NOFLOAT' are accepted
and ignored.
`FORCE_COMMON_ALLOCATION'
This command has the same effect as the `-d' command-line option:
to make `ld' assign space to common symbols even if a relocatable
output file is specified (`-r').
`INPUT ( FILE, FILE, ... )'
`INPUT ( FILE FILE ... )'
Use this command to include binary input files in the link, without
including them in a particular section definition. Files
specified this way are treated identically to object files listed
on the command line.
`OUTPUT ( FILENAME )'
Use this command to name the link output file FILENAME. The
effect of `OUTPUT(FILENAME)' is identical to the effect of
`-o FILENAME', and whichever is encountered last will control the
name actually used to name the output file. In particular, you
can use this command to supply a default output-file name other
than `a.out'.
`OUTPUT_ARCH ( BFDNAME )'
Specify a particular output machine architecture, with one of the
names used by the BFD back-end routines (*note BFD::.). This
command is often unnecessary; the architecture is most often set
implicitly by either the system BFD configuration or as a side
effect of the `OUTPUT_FORMAT' command.
`OUTPUT_FORMAT ( BFDNAME )'
Specify a particular output format, with one of the names used by
the BFD back-end routines (*note BFD::.). This selection will
only affect the output file; the related command `TARGET' affects
primarily input files.
`SEARCH_DIR ( PATH )'
Add PATH to the list of paths where `ld' looks for archive
libraries. `SEARCH_DIR(PATH)' has the same effect as `-LPATH' on
the command line.
`STARTUP ( FILENAME )'
Ensure that FILENAME is the first input file used in the link
process.
`TARGET ( FORMAT )'
Change the input-file object code format (like the command-line
option `-b' or its synonym `-format'). The argument FORMAT is one
of the strings used by BFD to name binary formats. In the current
`ld' implementation, if `TARGET' is specified but `OUTPUT_FORMAT'
is not, the last `TARGET' argument is also used as the default
format for the `ld' output file. *Note BFD::.
If you don't use the `TARGET' command, `ld' uses the value of the
environment variable `GNUTARGET', if available, to select the
output file format. If that variable is also absent, `ld' uses
the default format configured for your machine in the BFD
libraries.
This is Info file ld.info, produced by Makeinfo-1.52 from the input
file ./ld.texinfo.
START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
* Ld: (ld). The GNU linker.
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
This file documents the GNU linker LD.
Copyright (C) 1991, 1992, 1993 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this
manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are
preserved on all copies.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of
this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided also
that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms
of a permission notice identical to this one.
Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this
manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified
versions.
File: ld.info, Node: BFD, Next: MRI, Prev: Commands, Up: Top
The linker accesses object and archive files using the BFD libraries.
These libraries allow the linker to use the same routines to operate on
object files whatever the object file format. A different object file
format can be supported simply by creating a new BFD back end and adding
it to the library. You can use `objdump -i' (*note objdump:
(binutils.info)objdump.) to list all the formats available for each
architecture under BFD. This was the list of formats, and of
architectures supported for each format, as of the time this manual was
prepared:
BFD header file version 0.18
a.out-i386
(header big endian, data big endian)
m68k:68020
a29k
sparc
i386
a.out-sunos-big
(header big endian, data big endian)
m68k:68020
a29k
sparc
i386
b.out.big
(header big endian, data little endian)
i960:core
b.out.little
(header little endian, data little endian)
i960:core
coff-a29k-big
(header big endian, data big endian)
a29k
coff-h8300
(header big endian, data big endian)
H8/300
coff-i386
(header little endian, data little endian)
i386
coff-Intel-big
(header big endian, data little endian)
i960:core
coff-Intel-little
(header little endian, data little endian)
i960:core
coff-m68k
(header big endian, data big endian)
m68k:68020
coff-m88kbcs
(header big endian, data big endian)
m88k:88100
ecoff-bigmips
(header big endian, data big endian)
mips
ecoff-littlemips
(header little endian, data little endian)
mips
elf-big
(header big endian, data big endian)
m68k:68020
vax
i960:core
a29k
sparc
mips
i386
m88k:88100
H8/300
rs6000:6000
elf-little
(header little endian, data little endian)
m68k:68020
vax
i960:core
a29k
sparc
mips
i386
m88k:88100
H8/300
rs6000:6000
ieee
(header big endian, data big endian)
m68k:68020
vax
i960:core
a29k
sparc
mips
i386
m88k:88100
H8/300
rs6000:6000
srec
(header big endian, data big endian)
m68k:68020
vax
i960:core
a29k
sparc
mips
i386
m88k:88100
H8/300
rs6000:6000
As with most implementations, BFD is a compromise between several
conflicting requirements. The major factor influencing BFD design was
efficiency: any time used converting between formats is time which
would not have been spent had BFD not been involved. This is partly
offset by abstraction payback; since BFD simplifies applications and
back ends, more time and care may be spent optimizing algorithms for a
greater speed.
One minor artifact of the BFD solution which you should bear in mind
is the potential for information loss. There are two places where
useful information can be lost using the BFD mechanism: during
conversion and during output. *Note BFD information loss::.
* Menu:
* BFD outline:: How it works: an outline of BFD
* BFD information loss:: Information Loss
* Mechanism:: Mechanism
File: ld.info, Node: BFD outline, Next: BFD information loss, Up: BFD
How it works: an outline of BFD
===============================
When an object file is opened, BFD subroutines automatically
determine the format of the input object file, and build a descriptor in
memory with pointers to routines that will be used to access elements of
the object file's data structures.
As different information from the the object files is required, BFD
reads from different sections of the file and processes them. For
example, a very common operation for the linker is processing symbol
tables. Each BFD back end provides a routine for converting between
the object file's representation of symbols and an internal canonical
format. When the linker asks for the symbol table of an object file, it
calls through the memory pointer to the BFD back end routine which
reads and converts the table into a canonical form. The linker then
operates upon the common form. When the link is finished and the linker
writes the symbol table of the output file, another BFD back end
routine is called which takes the newly created symbol table and
converts it into the chosen output format.
File: ld.info, Node: BFD information loss, Next: Mechanism, Prev: BFD outline, Up: BFD
Information Loss
================
*Information can be lost during output.* The output formats
supported by BFD do not provide identical facilities, and information
which may be described in one form has nowhere to go in another format.
One example of this is alignment information in `b.out'. There is
nowhere in an `a.out' format file to store alignment information on the
contained data, so when a file is linked from `b.out' and an `a.out'
image is produced, alignment information will not propagate to the
output file. (The linker will still use the alignment information
internally, so the link is performed correctly).
Another example is COFF section names. COFF files may contain an
unlimited number of sections, each one with a textual section name. If
the target of the link is a format which does not have many sections
(e.g., `a.out') or has sections without names (e.g., the Oasys format)
the link cannot be done simply. You can circumvent this problem by
describing the desired input-to-output section mapping with the command
language.
*Information can be lost during canonicalization.* The BFD internal
canonical form of the external formats is not exhaustive; there are
structures in input formats for which there is no direct representation
internally. This means that the BFD back ends cannot maintain all
possible data richness through the transformation between external to
internal and back to external formats.
This limitation is only a problem when using the linker to read one
format and write another. Each BFD back end is responsible for
maintaining as much data as possible, and the internal BFD canonical
form has structures which are opaque to the BFD core, and exported only
to the back ends. When a file is read in one format, the canonical form
is generated for BFD and the linker. At the same time, the back end
saves away any information which would otherwise be lost. If the data
is then written back in the same format, the back end routine will be
able to use the canonical form provided by the BFD core as well as the
information it prepared earlier. Since there is a great deal of
commonality between back ends, there is no information lost when
linking big endian COFF to little endian COFF, or from `a.out' to
`b.out'. When a mixture of formats is linked, the information is only
lost from the files whose format differs from the destination.
File: ld.info, Node: Mechanism, Prev: BFD information loss, Up: BFD
Mechanism
=========
The greatest potential for loss of information occurs when there is
the least overlap between the information provided by the source
format, that stored by the canonical format, and that needed by the
destination format. A brief description of the canonical form may help
you understand which kinds of data you can count on preserving across
conversions.
*files*
Information on target machine architecture, particular
implementation, and format type are stored on a per-file basis.
Other information includes a demand pagable bit and a write
protected bit. Information like Unix magic numbers is not stored
here--only the magic numbers' meaning, so a `ZMAGIC' file would
have both the demand pagable bit and the write protected text bit
set.
The byte order of the target is stored on a per-file basis, so
that big- and little-endian object files may be linked with one
another.
*sections*
Each section in the input file contains the name of the section,
the original address in the object file, various options, size and
alignment information and pointers into other BFD data structures.
*symbols*
Each symbol contains a pointer to the object file which originally
defined it, its name, its value, and various option bits. When a
BFD back end reads in a symbol table, the back end relocates all
symbols to make them relative to the base of the section where
they were defined. Doing this ensures that each symbol points to
its containing section. Each symbol also has a varying amount of
hidden private data for the BFD back end. Since the symbol points
to the original file, the private data format for that symbol is
accessible. `ld' can operate on a collection of symbols of wildly
different formats without problems.
Normal global and simple local symbols are maintained on output,
so an output file (no matter its format) will retain symbols
pointing to functions and to global, static, and common variables.
Some symbol information is not worth retaining; in `a.out', type
information is stored in the symbol table as long symbol names.
This information would be useless to most COFF debuggers and may
be thrown away with appropriate command line switches. (The GNU
debugger `gdb' does support `a.out' style debugging information in
COFF).
There is one word of type information within the symbol, so if the
format supports symbol type information within symbols (for
example, COFF, IEEE, Oasys) and the type is simple enough to fit
within one word (nearly everything but aggregates), the
information will be preserved.
*relocation level*
Each canonical BFD relocation record contains a pointer to the
symbol to relocate to, the offset of the data to relocate, the
section the data is in, and a pointer to a relocation type
descriptor. Relocation is performed by passing messages through
the relocation type descriptor and the symbol pointer. Therefore,
relocations can be performed on output data using a relocation
method that is only available in one of the input formats. For
instance, Oasys provides a byte relocation format. A relocation
record requesting this relocation type would point indirectly to a
routine to perform this, so the relocation may be performed on a
byte being written to a COFF file, even though 68k COFF has no
such relocation type.
*line numbers*
Object formats can contain, for debugging purposes, some form of
mapping between symbols, source line numbers, and addresses in the
output file. These addresses have to be relocated along with the
symbol information. Each symbol with an associated list of line
number records points to the first record of the list. The head
of a line number list consists of a pointer to the symbol, which
allows finding out the address of the function whose line number
is being described. The rest of the list is made up of pairs:
offsets into the section and line numbers. Any format which can
simply derive this information can pass it successfully between
formats (COFF, IEEE and Oasys).
File: ld.info, Node: MRI, Next: Index, Prev: BFD, Up: Top
MRI Compatible Script Files
***************************
To aid users making the transition to GNU `ld' from the MRI linker,
`ld' can use MRI compatible linker scripts as an alternative to the
more general-purpose linker scripting language described in *Note
Command Language: Commands. MRI compatible linker scripts have a much
simpler command set than the scripting language otherwise used with
`ld'. GNU `ld' supports the most commonly used MRI linker commands;
these commands are described here.
You can specify a file containing an MRI-compatible script using the
`-c' command-line option.
Each command in an MRI-compatible script occupies its own line; each
command line starts with the keyword that identifies the command (though
blank lines are also allowed for punctuation). If a line of an
MRI-compatible script begins with an unrecognized keyword, `ld' issues
a warning message, but continues processing the script.
Lines beginning with `*' are comments.
You can write these commands using all upper-case letters, or all
lower case; for example, `chip' is the same as `CHIP'. The following
list shows only the upper-case form of each command.
`ABSOLUTE SECNAME'
`ABSOLUTE SECNAME, SECNAME, ... SECNAME'
Normally, `ld' includes in the output file all sections from all
the input files. However, in an MRI-compatible script, you can
use the `ABSOLUTE' command to restrict the sections that will be
present in your output program. If the `ABSOLUTE' command is used
at all in a script, then only the sections named explicitly in
`ABSOLUTE' commands will appear in the linker output. You can
still use other input sections (whatever you select on the command
line, or using `LOAD') to resolve addresses in the output file.
`ALIAS OUT-SECNAME, IN-SECNAME'
Use this command to place the data from input section IN-SECNAME
in a section called OUT-SECNAME in the linker output file.
IN-SECNAME may be an integer.
`BASE EXPRESSION'
Use the value of EXPRESSION as the lowest address (other than
absolute addresses) in the output file.
`CHIP EXPRESSION'
`CHIP EXPRESSION, EXPRESSION'
This command does nothing; it is accepted only for compatibility.
`END'
This command does nothing whatever; it's only accepted for
compatibility.
`FORMAT OUTPUT-FORMAT'
Similar to the `OUTPUT_FORMAT' command in the more general linker
language, but restricted to one of these output formats:
1. S-records, if OUTPUT-FORMAT is `S'
2. IEEE, if OUTPUT-FORMAT is `IEEE'
3. COFF (the `coff-m68k' variant in BFD), if OUTPUT-FORMAT is
`COFF'
`LIST ANYTHING...'
Print (to the standard output file) a link map, as produced by the
`ld' command-line option `-M'.
The keyword `LIST' may be followed by anything on the same line,
with no change in its effect.
`LOAD FILENAME'
`LOAD FILENAME, FILENAME, ... FILENAME'
Include one or more object file FILENAME in the link; this has the
same effect as specifying FILENAME directly on the `ld' command
line.
`NAME OUTPUT-NAME'
OUTPUT-NAME is the name for the program produced by `ld'; the
MRI-compatible command `NAME' is equivalent to the command-line
option `-o' or the general script language command `OUTPUT'.
`ORDER SECNAME, SECNAME, ... SECNAME'
`ORDER SECNAME SECNAME SECNAME'
Normally, `ld' orders the sections in its output file in the order
in which they first appear in the input files. In an
MRI-compatible script, you can override this ordering with the
`ORDER' command. The sections you list with `ORDER' will appear
first in your output file, in the order specified.
`PUBLIC NAME=EXPRESSION'
`PUBLIC NAME,EXPRESSION'
`PUBLIC NAME EXPRESSION'
Supply a value (EXPRESSION) for external symbol NAME used in the
linker input files.
`SECT SECNAME, EXPRESSION'
`SECT SECNAME=EXPRESSION'
`SECT SECNAME EXPRESSION'
You can use any of these three forms of the `SECT' command to
specify the start address (EXPRESSION) for section SECNAME. If
you have more than one `SECT' statement for the same SECNAME, only
the *first* sets the start address.
File: ld.info, Node: Index, Prev: MRI, Up: Top
Index
*****
* Menu:
* ": Symbols.
* ( COMMON ): Section Contents.
* *(SECTION): Section Contents.
* -b FORMAT: Invocation.
* -Bstatic: Invocation.
* -c MRI-CMDFILE: Invocation.
* -d: Invocation.
* -dc: Invocation.
* -defsym SYMBOL=EXP: Invocation.
* -dp: Invocation.
* -e ENTRY: Invocation.
* -F: Invocation.
* -format: Invocation.
* -g: Invocation.
* -i: Invocation.
* -lAR: Invocation.
* -LDIR: Invocation.
* -m: Invocation.
* -M: Invocation.
* -n: Invocation.
* -N: Invocation.
* -noinhibit-exec: Invocation.
* -o OUTPUT: Invocation.
* -r: Invocation.
* -R FILE: Invocation.
* -relax: Invocation.
* -S: Invocation.
* -s: Invocation.
* -t: Invocation.
* -T SCRIPT: Invocation.
* -Tbss BSSORG: Invocation.
* -Tdata DATAORG: Invocation.
* -Ttext TEXTORG: Invocation.
* -u SYM: Invocation.
* -Ur: Invocation.
* -v: Invocation.
* -X: Invocation.
* -x: Invocation.
* -ySYMBOL: Invocation.
* .: Location Counter.
* 0x: Integers.
* ;: Assignment.
* =FILL: Section Options.
* >REGION: Section Options.
* ABSOLUTE (MRI): MRI.
* ALIAS (MRI): MRI.
* BASE (MRI): MRI.
* CHIP (MRI): MRI.
* END (MRI): MRI.
* FORMAT (MRI): MRI.
* LIST (MRI): MRI.
* LOAD (MRI): MRI.
* NAME (MRI): MRI.
* ORDER (MRI): MRI.
* PUBLIC (MRI): MRI.
* SECT (MRI): MRI.
* FILENAME: Section Contents.
* FILENAME(SECTION): Section Contents.
* SYMBOL = EXPRESSION ;: Section Contents.
* SYMBOL F= EXPRESSION ;: Section Contents.
* { SCRIPT }: Invocation.
* absolute and relocatable symbols: Assignment.
* ABSOLUTE(EXP): Built-ins.
* ADDR(SECTION): Built-ins.
* ALIGN(EXP): Built-ins.
* aligning sections: Section Options.
* allocating memory: MEMORY.
* architectures available: BFD.
* archive files, from cmd line: Invocation.
* arithmetic: Expressions.
* arithmetic operators: Operators.
* assignment in scripts: Assignment.
* assignment, in section defn: Section Contents.
* back end: BFD.
* BFD canonical format: Mechanism.
* BFD requirements: BFD.
* binary input files: Other Commands.
* binary input format: Invocation.
* BLOCK(ALIGN): Section Options.
* BYTE(EXPRESSION): Section Contents.
* command files: Commands.
* command line: Invocation.
* commands, fundamental: Scripts.
* comments: Scripts.
* common allocation: Invocation.
* common allocation: Other Commands.
* commons in output: Section Contents.
* compatibility, MRI: Invocation.
* constructors: Invocation.
* contents of a section: Section Contents.
* CREATE_OBJECT_SYMBOLS: Section Contents.
* current output location: Location Counter.
* decimal integers: Integers.
* DEFINED(SYMBOL): Built-ins.
* deleting local symbols: Invocation.
* direct output: Section Contents.
* discontinuous memory: MEMORY.
* dot: Location Counter.
* entry point, defaults: Entry Point.
* entry point, from command line: Invocation.
* ENTRY(SYMBOL): Entry Point.
* expression evaluation order: Evaluation.
* expression syntax: Expressions.
* expression, absolute: Built-ins.
* filename symbols: Section Contents.
* files and sections, section defn: Section Contents.
* files, including in output sections: Section Contents.
* fill pattern, entire section: Section Options.
* FILL(EXPRESSION): Section Contents.
* first input file: Other Commands.
* first instruction: Entry Point.
* FLOAT: Other Commands.
* FORCE_COMMON_ALLOCATION: Other Commands.
* format, output file: Other Commands.
* formats available: BFD.
* functions in expression language: Built-ins.
* fundamental script commands: Scripts.
* GNU linker: Overview.
* GNUTARGET: Other Commands.
* header size: Built-ins.
* hexadecimal integers: Integers.
* holes: Location Counter.
* holes, filling: Section Contents.
* incremental link: Invocation.
* INPUT ( FILES ): Other Commands.
* input file format: Other Commands.
* input filename symbols: Section Contents.
* input files, displaying: Invocation.
* input files, section defn: Section Contents.
* input format: Invocation.
* input format: Invocation.
* input sections to output section: Section Contents.
* integer notation: Integers.
* integer suffixes: Integers.
* internal object-file format: Mechanism.
* K and M integer suffixes: Integers.
* l =: MEMORY.
* L, deleting symbols beginning: Invocation.
* layout of output file: Scripts.
* lazy evaluation: Evaluation.
* len =: MEMORY.
* LENGTH =: MEMORY.
* link map: Invocation.
* local symbols, deleting: Invocation.
* location counter: Location Counter.
* LONG(EXPRESSION): Section Contents.
* M and K integer suffixes: Integers.
* machine architecture, output: Other Commands.
* MEMORY: MEMORY.
* memory region attributes: MEMORY.
* memory regions and sections: Section Options.
* MRI compatibility: MRI.
* names: Symbols.
* naming memory regions: MEMORY.
* naming output sections: Section Definition.
* naming the output file: Invocation.
* naming the output file: Other Commands.
* negative integers: Integers.
* NEXT(EXP): Built-ins.
* NMAGIC: Invocation.
* NOFLOAT: Other Commands.
* NOLOAD: Section Options.
* Non constant expression: Assignment.
* o =: MEMORY.
* object file management: BFD.
* object files: Invocation.
* octal integers: Integers.
* OMAGIC: Invocation.
* opening object files: BFD outline.
* Operators for arithmetic: Operators.
* options: Invocation.
* org =: MEMORY.
* ORIGIN =: MEMORY.
* OUTPUT ( FILENAME ): Other Commands.
* output file after errors: Invocation.
* output file layout: Scripts.
* OUTPUT_ARCH ( BFDNAME ): Other Commands.
* OUTPUT_FORMAT ( BFDNAME ): Other Commands.
* partial link: Invocation.
* path for libraries: Other Commands.
* precedence in expressions: Operators.
* prevent unnecessary loading: Section Options.
* quoted symbol names: Symbols.
* read-only text: Invocation.
* read/write from cmd line: Invocation.
* regions of memory: MEMORY.
* relaxing addressing modes: Invocation.
* relocatable and absolute symbols: Assignment.
* relocatable output: Invocation.
* requirements for BFD: BFD.
* rounding up location counter: Built-ins.
* scaled integers: Integers.
* script files: Invocation.
* scripts on command line: Invocation.
* search directory, from cmd line: Invocation.
* search path, libraries: Other Commands.
* SEARCH_DIR ( PATH ): Other Commands.
* section address: Built-ins.
* section address: Section Options.
* section alignment: Section Options.
* section definition: Section Definition.
* section defn, full syntax: Section Options.
* section fill pattern: Section Options.
* section size: Built-ins.
* section start: Section Options.
* section, assigning to memory region: Section Options.
* SECTIONS: SECTIONS.
* segment origins, cmd line: Invocation.
* semicolon: Assignment.
* SHORT(EXPRESSION): Section Contents.
* SIZEOF(SECTION): Built-ins.
* sizeof_headers: Built-ins.
* SIZEOF_HEADERS: Built-ins.
* standard Unix system: Invocation.
* start address, section: Section Options.
* start of execution: Entry Point.
* STARTUP ( FILENAME ): Other Commands.
* strip all symbols: Invocation.
* strip debugger symbols: Invocation.
* suffixes for integers: Integers.
* symbol defaults: Built-ins.
* symbol definition, scripts: Assignment.
* symbol names: Symbols.
* symbol tracing: Invocation.
* symbol-only input: Invocation.
* symbols, from command line: Invocation.
* symbols, relocatable and absolute: Assignment.
* synthesizing linker: Invocation.
* TARGET ( FORMAT ): Other Commands.
* unallocated address, next: Built-ins.
* undefined symbol: Invocation.
* uninitialized data: Section Contents.
* unspecified memory: Section Contents.
* variables, defining: Assignment.
* verbose: Invocation.
* version: Invocation.
* what is this?: Overview.
* [ SECTIONS ]: Section Contents.